In 2024, the veil of history was parted by scientific revelations that shed new light on figures from the past, both renowned and obscure. Ancient DNA analysis played a pivotal role in filling gaps in our knowledge and challenging long-standing beliefs.

A case in point is the archaeological site of Pompeii, where genetic research has reshaped understanding of the Roman town entombed by ash since Mount Vesuvius erupted in AD 79. Previously, a famous image was interpreted as a mother clutching her child in their final moments; however, genetic traces from the bones revealed an unrelated adult male offering solace to a child, dispelling long-held assumptions.

Here are some of the ways science has kindled a fresh comprehension of historical figures in 2024, and in some instances, unveiled new enigmas yet to be deciphered. A meticulous examination of tooth enamel, tartar, and bone collagen unveiled new details about "Vittrup Man," a Stone Age migrant who met a violent end in a northwest Denmark swamp approximately 5,200 years ago.

Unearthed in 1915 from a peat bog in Vittrup, Denmark, alongside a wooden club likely used in the assault, his story remained largely unknown. Employing state-of-the-art analytical techniques, Anders Fischer, a project researcher at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden, and his team endeavored to "find the individual behind the bone" and narrate the tale of Denmark's oldest known immigrant. Vittrup Man, a product of the Scandinavian coast and a hunter-gatherer community with a diet of fish, seals, and whales, experienced a dramatic life change in his late teens when he migrated to Denmark and adopted a farmer's diet of sheep and goat, eventually dying between the ages of 30 and 40.

His violent death may have been a sacrifice or a case of being in the wrong place at the wrong time. Fischer's multifaceted approach to uncovering Vittrup Man's identity and journey from northern to southern Scandinavia, and from a fisher-hunter-gatherer to a farmer, was particularly satisfying.

In a separate development, researchers linked a skeleton discovered in a castle well to an 800-year-old Norse text. The Sverris saga, chronicling King Sverre Sigurdsson, describes an invading army disposing of a corpse in a well at Norway’s Sverresborg castle in 1197, possibly to poison the water.

A team of scientists investigated bones found in the well in 1938 and, using radiocarbon dating, confirmed the remains were approximately 900 years old. Genetic sequencing of tooth samples revealed that “Well-man” had medium skin tone, blue eyes, and light brown or blond hair, and surprisingly, his genetics did not match the local population. This suggests that the besieging forces may have disposed of one of their own deceased into the well, as study coauthor Michael D. Martin explained.

Advances in molecular genetics over the past two decades have aided researchers in unraveling the enduring historical enigma of a so-called “lost prince” who emerged in mid-19th century Germany. For 200 years, there has been speculation that the enigmatic Kaspar Hauser was a secret member of the German royal family. Found wandering unidentified in Nuremberg in May 1828 at the age of 16, Hauser's inability to communicate sparked rumors of him being a kidnapped prince from the royal family of Baden. This year, a new analysis of Hauser’s hair samples disproved the royal hoax, revealing that his mitochondrial DNA did not align with the Baden family's. However, this resolution has given rise to a new mystery: Who was this man? As his tombstone states, Hauser remains “the riddle of his time.”

Classical composer Ludwig van Beethoven, who died at 56 in 1827, suffered from various ailments, including deafness, liver disease, and gastrointestinal issues. Beethoven wished for his ailments to be studied so that “the world will be reconciled to me after my death.” In May, a study revealed high levels of lead in Beethoven’s hair, suggesting lead poisoning as a contributing factor to his health issues. The findings expanded on previous insights gained from Beethoven’s genome, which also contained elevated levels of arsenic and mercury, likely from a lifetime diet of fish from the polluted Danube River and lead-sugared wine. These discoveries enhance our understanding of the composer and his complex, enduring symphonies.

In March, a DNA analysis of skeletal remains shed light on the fate of George Washington's family members. Washington's younger brother Samuel and 19 other relatives were buried at Samuel’s estate near Charles Town, West Virginia. Some graves were unmarked, likely to deter grave robbing. The study, led by Courtney L. Cavagnino, identified two of Samuel’s grandsons and their mother. The techniques used could also be applied to identify unknown military remains dating back to World War II.

Meanwhile, an investigation of unmarked graves at Jamestown, Virginia, uncovered a scandal within the family of the colony’s first governor, Thomas West. DNA analysis revealed that two male skeletons were related to West through a shared maternal lineage. One, Capt. William West, was born to West’s spinster aunt, Elizabeth, and was illegitimate. The secret of his true parentage was likely what prompted him to join the colony across the Atlantic.

Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, known for his 16th-century celestial discoveries, was also an alchemist who brewed secret medicines for elite clients. Although his alchemical lab was destroyed after his death, chemical analysis of glass and pottery shards from the site detected elements such as nickel, copper, zinc, tin, mercury, gold, lead, and a surprising find: tungsten, which was not yet described at the time. This raises new questions about Brahe's secretive work.

Separately, German astronomer Johannes Kepler's 1607 sketches of sunspots provided valuable insights into the sun’s solar cycle. His drawings, made using a camera obscura, captured sunspots and helped determine that solar cycles were occurring as expected, contrary to previous beliefs of abnormally long durations.

This year, the centuries-old work of Brahe and Kepler contributed new pieces to the puzzle of our past, alongside the foundational shifts in perspective brought by Newton and Galileo.